Yin Xu

Yin Xu, spelluta wkoll bħala Yinxu (pronunzja biċ-Ċiniż Mandarin: [ín.ɕý]; biċ-Ċiniż: 殷墟; litteralment "Fdalijiet ta' Yin") huwa sit arkeoloġiku Ċiniż b'rabta ma' Yin, l-ewwel belt kapitali tad-dinastija Shang (mill-ħabta tal-1600 sal-ħabta tal-1046 Q.K.). Yin tinsab fil-belt attwali ta' Anyang, fil-Provinċja ta' Henan, u fl-imgħoddi kienet il-belt kapitali matul il-perjodu aħħari tad-dinastija Shang (mill-ħabta tal-1250 sal-ħabta tal-1046 Q.K.), matul ir-renji ta' 12-il re tad-dinastija Shang. Matul dan iż-żmien feġġet il-kitba tal-għadam tal-oraklu, l-iżjed kitba Ċiniża bikrija magħrufa. Flimkien mal-kitba tal-għadam tal-oraklu u evidenza materjali oħra dwar l-eżistenza tad-dinastija Shang, is-sit intesa għal millenji sħaħ. Meta reġa' ġie skopert fl-1899, twettqet investigazzjoni fir-rigward tal-għadam tal-oraklu li nstab li kien qed jinbiegħ fil-qrib. L-iskoperta mill-ġdid ta' Yin Xu mmarkat il-bidu ta' deċennji ta' skavi u studji intensivi. Dan is-sit huwa wieħed mill-eqdem u mill-ikbar siti arkeoloġiċi fiċ-Ċina, u tniżżel fil-lista tas-Siti ta' Wirt Dinji tal-UNESCO fl-2006. Yin Xu jinsab fit-Tramuntana ta' Henan, qrib il-belt moderna attwali ta' Anyang u l-konfini kondiviżi bejn Henan, Hebei u Shanxi. L-aċċess tal-pubbliku fis-sit huwa permess.

Skont id-dizzjunarju tas-seklu 2 ta' Shuowen Jiezi (biċ-Ċiniż: 說文解字), il-karattru Ċiniż "殷" (yīn) oriġinarjament kien jirreferi għad-"daqq ta' mużika vibranti". Għalkemm jintuża spiss matul l-istorja bil-miktub bħala referenza għad-dinastija Shang u għall-belt kapitali finali tagħha, l-isem Yīn (biċ-Ċiniż: 殷) milli jidher ma ntużax b'dan il-mod qabel id-dinastija Zhou li ġiet wara. B'mod partikolari, milli jidher l-isem ma ntużax fl-għadam tal-oraklu, fejn issir referenza għall-istat bħala Shāng (biċ-Ċiniż: 商), u għall-belt kapitali finali tagħha bħala Dàyì Shāng (biċ-Ċiniż: 大邑商; litteralment "l-Insedjament il-Kbir tad-dinastija Shang").

Fost id-dokumenti storiċi Ċiniżi li għadhom eżistenti, Yin tiġi deskritta bħala l-belt kapitali finali tad-dinastija Shang. Madankollu, ma hemmx qbil dwar meta seħħ it-trasferiment tal-belt kapitali għal Yin. Kemm il-Ktieb tad-Dokumenti, (speċifikament fil-kapitlu dwar "Pan Geng", li huwa maħsub li jmur lura għall-aħħar tar-rebbiegħa u l-bidu tal-ħarifa), kif ukoll l-Annali tal-Bambù jiddikjaraw li r-re tad-dinastija Shang Pan Geng ittrasferixxa l-belt kapitali għal Yin. L-Annali tal-Bambù jiddikjaraw, b'mod iktar speċifiku, li matul ir-renju tiegħu, Pan Geng ittrasferixxa l-belt kapitali minn Yān (biċ-Ċiniż: 奄; illum il-ġurnata Qufu, fil-Provinċja ta' Shandong), għal sit imsejjaħ Běimĕng (biċ-Ċiniż: 北蒙), where it was then renamed to Yīn (biċ-Ċiniż: 殷). Min-naħa l-oħra, skont ir-Reġistri tal-Istoriku Grandjuż ta' Sima Qian, Pan Geng ittrasferixxa l-belt kapitali tad-dinastija Shang minn sit fit-Tramuntana tax-Xmara Safra għal Bo (biċ-Ċiniż: 亳), il-belt kapitali tal-fundatur tad-dinastija Shang, Tang, fin-naħa tan-Nofsinhar tax-xmara — sit li mhuwiex konsistenti mas-sit ta' Yin.

Minkejja dan, Yin żgur li ġiet stabbilita bħala l-belt kapitali tad-dinastija Shang sa żmien ir-Re Wu Ding. Wu Ding vara bosta kampanji militari minn din il-bażi kontra t-tribujiet tal-madwar, u b'hekk żgura li t-tmexxija tad-dinastija Shang tilħaq il-qofol tagħha fl-istorja hemmhekk.

Skont il-ġrajjiet tradizzjonali, il-mexxija ta' wara kienu jippreferu jixxalaw minflok jieħdu ħsieb l-affarijiet statali. Ir-Re Zhòu, l-aħħar re tad-dinastija Shang, baqa' jitfakkar għan-nuqqas ta' ħniena u għall-eċċessi tiegħu. Kulma jmur il-liġijiet awtokratiċi tiegħu aljenaw in-nobbli sa ma r-Re Wu tad-dinastija Zhou rnexxielu jikseb l-appoġġ biex jegħleb lid-dinastija Shang u jieħu t-tron f'idejh.

Id-dinastija Zhou stabbiliet il-belt kapitali tagħha f'Fenghao qrib il-belt moderna ta' Xi'an, u Yīn ġiet abbandunata u tħalliet fi stat ta' fdalijiet. Dawn il-fdalijiet issemmew minn Sima Qian fir-Reġistri tal-Istoriku Grandjuż tiegħu, iktar preċiżament fil-Battalja ta' Julu, u ġew deskritti fid-dettall minn Li Daoyuan fil-Kummentarju Klassiku dwar ix-Xmara, ippubblikat matul il-perjodu tad-dinastiji tan-Nofsinhar u tat-Tramuntana (420-589 W.K.). Minn dak iż-żmien 'il quddiem, il-belt antika ta' Yīn ġiet rrilegata għal leġġenda flimkien mad-dinastija fundatriċi tagħha sa ma ġiet skoperta mill-ġdid fl-aħħar snin tad-dinastija Qing.

Is-sit ta' Yin Xu huwa magħruf sew għall-għadam tal-oraklu, li ġie rrikonoxxut għall-ewwel darba li kien fih kitba Ċiniża tal-qedem fl-1899 minn Wang Yirong, id-direttur tal-Akkademja Imperjali. Rakkont partikolari ta' Wang kien li dak iż-żmien kien qed ibati minħabba l-malarja u t-tabib ordnalu Longgu (biċ-Ċiniż: 龍骨; litteralment "għadam tad-dragun") mingħand spiżerija Ċiniża tradizzjonali. Huwa nnota tinqix stramb fuq dak l-għadam u kkonkluda li dan jaf kien kampjun ta' forma antika ta' kitba Ċiniża.

L-aħbarijiet tal-iskoperta tal-għadam tal-oraklu ħolqu suq għalihom fost il-kollezzjonisti tal-antikwarjat, u wasslu għal diversi mewġiet ta' skavi illegali matul diversi deċennji, fejn ittieħdu għexieren ta' eluf ta' oġġetti. Is-sors tal-"għadam tad-dragun" eventwalment instab li jmur lura għall-villaġġ żgħir ta' Xiaotun, ftit 'il barra minn Anyang. Fl-1910, l-istudjuż magħruf Luo Zhenyu sostna li l-inħawi kienu s-sit tal-aħħar belt kapitali tad-dinastija Shang. Il-missjunarju u l-analist tal-għadam tal-oraklu Kanadiż James Menzies identifika wkoll b'mod indipendenti lil Anyang bħala l-belt kapitali fl-1910. Fl-1917, Wang Guowei ddeċifra l-kitbiet tal-għadam tal-oraklu li kien fihom l-ismijiet tar-rejiet tad-dinastija Shang u bena ġenealoġija sħiħa tad-dinastija Shang. Din kienet taqbel ferm mar-ReġistriThis closely matched that in the Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian, confirming the historical authenticity of the legendary Shang dynasty and the archaeological importance of Yin Xu. However, the oracle bone inscriptions record the name of the state as Dàyìshāng (biċ-Ċiniż: 大邑商) jew Shāngyì (biċ-Ċiniż: 商邑).

The first official archeological excavations at Yin Xu were led by the archeologist Li Ji of the Institute of History and Philosophy from 1928-37. They uncovered the remains of a royal palace, several royal tombs, and more than 100,000 oracle bones that show the Shang had a well-structured script with a complete system of written signs.

Since 1950 ongoing excavations by the Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences have uncovered evidence of stratification at the Hougang site, remains of palaces and temples, royal cemeteries, oracle bone inscriptions, bronze and bone workshops and the discovery of the Huanbei site on the north bank of the Huan River. One of the largest and oldest sites of Chinese archaeology, excavations here have laid the foundation for work across the country.

Four periods are recognized at the site. They correlate approximately with oracle bone periods assigned by Dong Zuobin, royal reigns and dates assigned by the Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project as follows:

At 30 square kilometers, Yin Xu is the largest archaeological site in China. Excavations have uncovered over 80 rammed-earth foundation sites including palaces, shrines, tombs and workshops. From these remains archaeologists have been able to confirm that this was the spiritual and cultural center of the Shang dynasty.

The best preserved of the Shang dynasty royal tombs unearthed at Yin Xu is the Tomb of Fu Hao. The extraordinary Lady Hao was a military leader and the wife of Shang King Wu Ding. The tomb was discovered in 1976 by Zheng Zhenxiang and has been dated to 1250 Q.K.. It was completely undisturbed, having escaped the looting that had damaged the other tombs on the site, and in addition to the remains of the Queen the tomb was discovered to contain six dog skeletons, 16 human slave skeletons, and numerous grave goods of huge archaeological value. The tomb was thoroughly excavated and extensively restored and is now open to the public. The exhibition hall also features chariot pits where the earliest samples of animal-driven carts discovered by Chinese archaeology are on display.

Before the excavation of Yin Xu, the Chinese historical record began in the first year of the subsequent Zhou dynasty, but the discovery of oracle bone inscriptions confirmed the historicity of the Shang, which had come under question. The framework of early ancient Chinese history was reconstructed, making it possible to assess the credibility of traditional accounts of Shang history.

The 150,000 oracle bones unearthed at Yin Xu comprise much of the earliest evidence of written Chinese. Bronze and jade relics constitute evidence of the funeral customs of Yin Xu, including human and animal sacrifice.

A large number of handicrafts and workshops have been discovered at Yin Xu. Patterns on utensils and bronzeware include those resembling animal faces, whorl patterns, and the taotie pattern. Large-scale bronzeware excavated at the site like the Houmuwu ding were cast by an elaborate section-mold process.

A study of mitochondrial DNA (inherited in the maternal line) from Yin Xu graves showed similarity with modern northern Han Chinese, but significant differences from southern Han Chinese.